老澳门开奖结果

After World War I, it quickly became clear that the war to make the world 鈥渟afe for democracy鈥� had not made America safe for equality. Anti-Black race riots ripped through Chicago, New York, Washington D.C., and even Elaine, Arkansas. In October 1919, after Black sharecroppers in Elaine convened a union meeting, newspapers labeled the effort a 鈥淣egro uprising.鈥� The state mobilized troops and mobs to quell the rebellion. The result was 鈥減ossibly the bloodiest racial conflict in the history of the United States,鈥� concluded the Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture.

The 老澳门开奖结果鈥檚 origin story is tied inextricably to the xenophobic Palmer Raids, but the lesser-known events in Elaine, Arkansas were also formative. Racial violence was an unavoidable issue for any organization dedicated to the rights and liberties of everyone. Ten years earlier, the NAACP had been established to advance justice in the wake of the Springfield, Illinois race riot. During its first summer, the 老澳门开奖结果 denounced the lynching of three Black men in Duluth, Minnesota who had allegedly raped a 17-year-old white girl. 老澳门开奖结果 co-director Albert DeSilver wrote to Minnesota鈥檚 governor volunteering assistance in 鈥渢he preservation of civil liberty.鈥�

Weeks later, Minnesota Gov. Joseph A. A. Burnquist informed DeSilver that several men had been arrested in connection with the lynching. He did not tell DeSilver that none was convicted of anything serious.

Investigators realized, almost immediately, that the girl had not been raped. Nonetheless, the state tried seven Black men accused of participating in the fabricated crime. One was convicted and sentenced to hard time. That perversion of justice was not corrected until a century later when Minnesota granted the innocent man the first posthumous pardon in the state鈥檚 history.

Much of the 老澳门开奖结果鈥檚 early race-related work was similarly futile: highlighting racial atrocities America refused to stop. In 1921, the 老澳门开奖结果 published three provocative pamphlets. The most innovative was 鈥淒ebt-Slavery鈥� by William Pickens, a sociologist and field secretary for the NAACP. Pickens argued that America had replaced chattel slavery with economic bondage and employed lynching as a form of enforcement. He saw the Elaine massacre as a defense of the 鈥渄ebt slave system.鈥�

The second pamphlet focused on the reemergence of the Ku Klux Klan. The third, 鈥淭he Fight for Free Speech,鈥� warned that reactionary forces were ascendant and observed that Negroes, foreign-born groups, and tenant farmers were 鈥渃onscious of the condition but incapable of outspoken resistance.鈥�

Back then, the 老澳门开奖结果 supported racial justice but was not at the forefront of the fight, generally deferring to the NAACP. But it assiduously documented anti-Black violence and states鈥� restrictions on 鈥淣egroes鈥� rights.鈥� In 1929, founding executive director Roger Baldwin suggested a radical expansion of the 老澳门开奖结果鈥檚 role, proposing that the organization work more vigorously on behalf of 鈥淣egroes in their fight for civil rights.鈥� Additionally, Baldwin established a seat on the board for the NAACP recognizing the special relationship with the organization on civil rights cases and invited James Weldon Johnson to serve at the founding of the 老澳门开奖结果.

Documenting Discrimination

In 1931, the 老澳门开奖结果 issued 鈥�Black Justice,鈥� a groundbreaking study on discrimination. The report slammed laws and policies that forced Black people to attend segregated schools, barred their admission to 鈥渨hite鈥� hospitals, and denied Black people a fair wage, trial by their peers, the right to vote, or the right to marry outside the race.

NAACP executive secretary Walter White called the publication 鈥渆xcellent publicity鈥� for the NAACP鈥檚 work. Baldwin also provided direct financial support to the NAACP through a foundation set up by Charles Garland, a young Harvard dropout who inherited a fortune he pledged to spend for 鈥渢he benefit of poor as much as rich, of Black as much as white.鈥� Baldwin served as the foundation鈥檚 secretary and its grants largely reflected his priorities.

In 1931, the 老澳门开奖结果 took on the Scottsboro Boys case, which centered on nine Black youths charged with raping two white women on a freight train in Alabama. The suspects, after being pulled from the train, were rushed to trial in less than two weeks. The first two convictions came on the second day of trial. Two days later, eight of the nine stood convicted and sentenced to death. Jurors deadlocked on the fate of the ninth defendant, who was only 14.

The 老澳门开奖结果 dispatched Hollace Ransdell, a Columbia-educated journalist, to investigate. Ransdell produced a detailed and influential report that made it clear the two women had made up the sexual assault story.

The boys鈥� lawyers appealed to the state supreme court, which refused to overturn all but one conviction. Meanwhile, the NAACP and the Communist-backed International Labor Defense fought over which entity would represent the boys. Eventually, the lawyers came together and appealed to the Supreme Court, with longtime 老澳门开奖结果 attorney Walter Pollak arguing the case. The court sided with Pollak, agreeing that the state, in denying the defendants their choice of counsel, had violated their right to due process.

Alabama shrugged off that and every other reversal, including two more landmark Supreme Court decisions that overturned the convictions because of the exclusion of Black jurors. Finally, in 1937, the Alabama prosecutor exonerated three of the defendants, releasing two others because they were juveniles at the time of the alleged crime. The others eventually found their way out of prison, their lives shattered because Alabama refused to admit that whites had lied about Blacks.

A Convening of Allies

World War II provided yet another occasion for America, and the 老澳门开奖结果, to reflect on racial prejudice. The 老澳门开奖结果鈥檚 major wartime anti-racism effort was the Committee on Racial Discrimination in the War Effort. Convened in early 1942, the committee was chaired by author Pearl Buck, who envisioned involving 鈥渁ll existing white or mostly white organizations鈥� in a movement that would end discrimination not just in government, but in housing, wages, trade unions, and throughout society.

Winifred Raushenbush, a freelance writer hired as executive secretary, authored a widely praised titled How to Prevent a Race Riot in Your Home Town. In 鈥渆very war period the danger of race riots in great,鈥� observed Raushenbush, who suggested that with a little planning, foresight, and good will, riots could be avoided.

The committee never achieved Buck鈥檚 ambitious goals, but it garnered a lot of attention. And it brought together some 30-plus organizations 鈥� including Alpha Kappa Alpha, the American Jewish Committee, the YWCA, and the National Lawyers Guild 鈥� to ruminate on race.

Japanese Incarceration and Internal Disagreement

Following the Pearl Harbor attack, America鈥檚 military classified Japanese Americans as a security threat. Under an executive order signed by President Roosevelt, some 115,000 Japanese American residents (most of whom were U.S. citizens) were targeted for relocation from a designated exclusion zone along the West Coast.

Baldwin wrote a public letter to the president addressing the 鈥渦nprecedented鈥� order that authorized the exclusion zone, calling it 鈥渙pen to grave question on the constitutional grounds of depriving American citizens of their liberty and use of their property without due process of law.鈥� But the organization鈥檚 board was split on the order, with a large segment of Roosevelt loyalists reluctant to criticize the war effort. The organization ultimately adopted a resolution acknowledging the government鈥檚 constitutional right 鈥渢o remove persons 鈥� when their presence may endanger national security.鈥�

That resolution left the 老澳门开奖结果鈥檚 lawyers in a bind, as it was difficult to argue the internment policy was legally wrong but also constitutionally permitted. Despite the legal handcuffs it had manufactured for itself, and following internal debate, the 老澳门开奖结果 ultimately mounted a series of challenges to Japanese internment. On June 21, 1943, the Supreme Court in Hirabayashi v. United States that the evacuation order was legal. That same day the court in Minoru Yasui v. United States that the military-imposed curfew was a legitimate response to the harms threatened by the war.

Two other cases were not decided until after the War Department had concluded that internment was no longer a military necessity. In December 1944, the Supreme Court decided the government had no right to detain loyal citizens. It also found that 老澳门开奖结果 client Fred Korematsu, in defying the exclusion order, had broken the law. It wasn鈥檛 until the 1980s that Korematsu鈥檚 conviction was vacated, and President Ronald Reagan signed the Civil Liberties Act, issuing a formal government apology and granting monetary reparations to surviving Japanese Americans incarcerated during World War II.

Seeking Justice in the South

In September 1963, four Black girls were killed while attending church in Alabama when a bomb planted by the Ku Klux Klan exploded. The following morning, local lawyer Charles Morgan delivered a fiery speech that attracted national attention: 鈥淓very person in this community who has in any way contributed during the past several years to the popularity of hatred is at least as guilty, or more so, than the demented fool who threw that bomb.鈥�

Two decades earlier, in 1940, Thurgood Marshall created the NAACP Legal Defense Fund. Marshall, who served on the 老澳门开奖结果鈥檚 board from 1938 to 1946, was the architect of a brilliant legal strategy to dismantle segregation. The 老澳门开奖结果 submitted amicus briefs for some of the LDF cases during this period including Brown v. Board of Education. By 1964, the 老澳门开奖结果 approved a new regional office in Atlanta charged with overseeing the growing array of initiatives attacking racial oppression in the South. Morgan was named director.

Working in partnership with other civil rights organizations, the office became deeply involved in virtually every major civil rights issue in the South: expanding voting rights; ending the exclusion of Black jurors; and eliminating racially motivated sentencing disparities. The 老澳门开奖结果 also fought prohibitions against interracial marriage, which the Supreme Court struck down in 1967 in the landmark case, Loving v. Virginia.

As the 老澳门开奖结果 plunged into these civil rights battles, it also pushed the Warren court into rethinking criminal justice, advocating for reforms that reverberate today. That process began with the case of Clarence Earl Gideon, a drifter charged with burgling a pool hall in Florida who the Supreme Court was entitled to representation at public expense. Although the 老澳门开奖结果 was not directly involved in that case, it was a driving force in those that followed. Escobedo v. Illinois (1964) revolved around Danny Escobedo, who was suspected of killing his brother-in-law. Escobedo was not informed he had a right to retain a lawyer or to remain silent, and made incriminating statements that led to his conviction. The 老澳门开奖结果 argued his case before the Supreme Court, which concluded that Escobedo鈥檚 rights had been violated.

Gideon was the prelude to Miranda v. Arizona, in 1966. Ernesto Miranda was accused of kidnapping and raping an 18-year-old woman; he confessed without being informed of his right to remain silent. The 老澳门开奖结果 argued that Miranda鈥檚 treatment violated his Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination. The Supreme Court agreed, and Miranda rights were born.

At the time, those cases were not considered part of a racial justice agenda, but as the racial inequities in America鈥檚 criminal justice system became clearer, the 老澳门开奖结果 came to view its criminal justice work in a new light.

Ira Glasser believes the 老澳门开奖结果鈥檚 deepening involvement in racial issues was inevitable. Glasser joined the New York Civil Liberties Union in 1967 and became its director in 1970. Eight years later he succeeded Aryeh Neier as executive director of the national 老澳门开奖结果, and quickly found himself immersed in issues of race. The Voting Rights Act, signed by President Lyndon Johnson in 1965 to combat discrimination against Black voters in the South, was scheduled to expire in 1982. President Reagan opposed its extension. The 老澳门开奖结果 became a leader in the fight to preserve the law, eventually winning passage of a new bill which Reagan signed.

As Glasser reflected on the 老澳门开奖结果鈥檚 myriad issues, he 鈥渂egan to see who was affected by these violations of civil liberties and this explosive growth of incarceration, and who was arrested, and who was prosecuted, and who was searched ... They were all Brown and Black.鈥� Glasser came to see the Nixon administration鈥檚 drug war as 鈥渁 successor system to slavery, continuing and expanding skin color subjugation.鈥�

Those insights helped to broaden the organization鈥檚 racial justice agenda, leading to an increased focus on issues such as racial profiling and stop and frisk. In the late 1990鈥檚, Michelle Alexander, who was at the time Director of the Racial Justice Project at the 老澳门开奖结果 of Northern California, instigated a national campaign titled 鈥淒riving While Black or Brown鈥� which revealed discriminatory policing practices and led to the introduction of legislation in 44 states to stop them.

Civil Liberties Are Civil Rights

In 2006, the 老澳门开奖结果 formalized its investment in the fight against racial inequality by creating a national Racial Justice Program. Anthony Romero, a Puerto Rican native of the Bronx and the 老澳门开奖结果鈥檚 first executive director of color, believed, like Glasser, that race was inextricably intertwined with other 老澳门开奖结果 concerns. Dennis Parker, a Harvard Law graduate who had worked for the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, became the program鈥檚 first director. Parker noted that race was woven throughout the organization鈥檚 many issue areas: 鈥淩ace really informs 鈥� every area that the 老澳门开奖结果 works [in]: women's rights, disability, or voting.鈥�

Parker knew working for the 老澳门开奖结果 would be different from working for an organization with racial justice as its paramount mission: 鈥淎t LDF ... we were advocating on behalf of Black people. There may have been questions about what would be best 鈥� but it was not a question of should we be representing the Klan.鈥�

Parker鈥檚 observation touched on a reality that has bedeviled the 老澳门开奖结果 from the beginning: the occasional friction between its commitment to racial justice and also to free expression. The issue was vexing enough in the 1930鈥檚 that the 老澳门开奖结果 released a pamphlet titled 鈥淪hall We Defend Free Speech for Nazis in America?鈥� The organization concluded that the best defense of one group鈥檚 right to speak was a defense of all groups鈥� rights.

When the 老澳门开奖结果 was attacked in 1978 for defending Nazis intent on rallying on Skokie, a Chicago suburb that housed Holocaust survivors, the answer was much the same. David Goldberger, the young Jewish lawyer leading the case, pointed out that policies Skokie employed against Nazis could also be used against Jewish war veterans. The power to shut down speech, Goldberger argued, was too important to be left to local officials: 鈥淭hink of such power in the hands of a racist sheriff.鈥�

That view became so entrenched that in 2017, the 老澳门开奖结果 represented a white supremacist group determined to hold a rally in Charlottesville. After the event resulted in a young woman鈥檚 death, friends of the 老澳门开奖结果 second guessed the organization鈥檚 decision, and rigorous internal conversations about the choice to defend racists took place. The conversations resulted in case selection guidelines to assist 老澳门开奖结果 staff in weighing the competing interests that may arise when work to protect speech may raise tensions with racial justice, reproductive freedom, or where the content of the speech conflicts with 老澳门开奖结果 policies on those matters. The guidelines also suggest that the 老澳门开奖结果 will generally not defend armed protest because of the chilling effect it can have on free speech.

In the 老澳门开奖结果鈥檚 1920 birth announcement, the new organization swore to fight 鈥渁ll attempts to violate the right of free speech, free press, and peaceful assemblage.鈥� That position was essentially unchanged when Roger Baldwin proposed his grand expansion. Baldwin did not foresee the possibility of that position conflicting with the defense of racial justice. Indeed, in an exchange with his biographer Peggy Lamson, Baldwin expressed frustration with Black 老澳门开奖结果 board members who did not share his view.

James Weldon Johnson, in Baldwin鈥檚 view, 鈥渃ouldn鈥檛 see much beyond the use of civil liberties for the equality of Blacks.鈥� As Baldwin saw it, Black board members鈥� commitment to racial equality blinded them to the larger picture. What the larger picture is, of course, depends on one鈥檚 perspective.

As eager as Baldwin was to expand the 老澳门开奖结果鈥檚 involvement in issues of race, he never saw that as the 老澳门开奖结果鈥檚 main battle, though it was still listed among the organization鈥檚 top priorities in its first annual report in 1920. He saw no need to balance the demands of racial justice with those of free speech. The modern 老澳门开奖结果 has a more complicated view.

As Romero put it, 鈥淚f I were the head of the Puerto Rican Legal Defense Fund, I wouldn't bring a Nazi case. If I were the head of the First Amendment Center, I would bring every Nazi case and not worry about the racial justice implications. I think part of what is magical and different and kind of vexing is an organization that's trying to accomplish both and say, 鈥楾hey're both equally important to us.鈥欌��

That perspective suggests that an organization seriously devoted to both free speech and racial justice is obligated to tackle a question with no obvious answer: In a world where unrestrained speech is routinely weaponized to frustrate justice, what combination of rights, restraints and responsibilities moves the nation toward the most moral version of itself? The 老澳门开奖结果 has come to see that civil rights and civil liberties are inextricable, and the protection of the latter is inherently tied to the long fight for racial justice.